Synthetic multi-level matrices for bone regeneration

Current bone replacement strategies are clinically inadequate, yet there is great promise in the use of synthetic adjuvant matrices. Electrospinning provides a three-dimensional platform in which matrices can be designed to mimic features of the extracellular matrix and improve bone regeneration. Composite nanofibers can be functionalised with therapeutic molecules, and/or may permit the delivery of growth factor combinations as required to stimulate bone healing. Collectively, these should more precisely direct repair by exogenous and endogenous stem and progenitor cells. The real novelty will be in combining multiple levels of scaffold-based tissue engineering developments in an i??off the shelfi?? clinic-ready product. Until then, application of bioactive nanofiber analogues, with dual-scale three-dimensional porosity that can be co-interfaced within effective stem cell treatment regimes, will be crucial in developing smart matrices for skeletal repair. This review presents holistic concepts for more effective bone regeneration and the methods in which they can be incorporated into nanotechnology-based scaffolds from a materials engineering perspective.