Person-environment fit theory in urban walking: An evaluation of subjective influences and the mediating role of perceived security in Kuala Lumpur

Walking is a fundamental urban mobility component, offering significant societal and environmental benefits. However, walkability research has primarily focused on physical infrastructure, with limited attention to subjective perceptions of environmental attributes, such as experienced convenience, comfort and security, particularly in non-Western contexts. This study applies the Person-Environment (PE) fit theory to examine how subjective environmental factors shape willingness to walk, with perceived security as a mediating variable. Drawing on survey data from urban residents in Kuala Lumpur, a city grappling with rapid urbanisation and automobile dependency, the study employs structural equation modelling to analyse relationships between experienced convenience, comfort, perceived security, and willingness to walk. Findings reveal that experienced comfort significantly enhances willingness to walk, with a standardised effect of β = 0.315. In contrast, experienced convenience did not show a significant direct effect. However, it has an indirect effect of β = 0.116 on willingness to walk through perceived security, suggesting that experienced convenience influences willingness to walk indirectly, by enhancing individuals' sense of security. Additionally, high-income individuals are less willing to walk (β = −0.106), likely due to greater mobility choices. These insights highlight the need for planning interventions integrating subjective user experiences with infrastructural improvements to foster more walkable and inclusive urban environments. The study offers localised yet transferable insights for cities facing similar socio-cultural and infrastructural challenges.