Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄)-based photocatalysts for artificial photosynthesis and environmental remediation: are we a step closer to achieving sustainability?

As a fascinating conjugated polymer, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) has become a new research hotspot and drawn broad interdisciplinary attention as a metal-free and visible-light-responsive photocatalyst in the arena of solar energy conversion and environmental remediation. This is due to its appealing electronic band structure, high physicochemical stability, and "earth-abundant" nature. This critical review summarizes a panorama of the latest progress related to the design and construction of pristine g-C₃N₄ and g-C₃N₄-based nanocomposites, including (1) nanoarchitecture design of bare g-C₃N₄, such as hard and soft templating approaches, supramolecular preorganization assembly, exfoliation, and template-free synthesis routes, (2) functionalization of g-C₃N₄ at an atomic level (elemental doping) and molecular level (copolymerization), and (3) modification of g-C₃N₄ with well-matched energy levels of another semiconductor or a metal as a cocatalyst to form heterojunction nanostructures. The construction and characteristics of each classification of the heterojunction system will be critically reviewed, namely metal-g-C₃N₄, semiconductor-g-C₃N₄, isotype g-C₃N₄/g-C₃N₄, graphitic carbon-g-C₃N₄, conducting polymer-g-C₃N₄, sensitizer-g-C₃N₄, and multicomponent heterojunctions. The band structures, electronic properties, optical absorption, and interfacial charge transfer of g-C₃N₄-based heterostructured nanohybrids will also be theoretically discussed based on the first-principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations to provide insightful outlooks on the charge carrier dynamics. Apart from that, the advancement of the versatile photoredox applications toward artificial photosynthesis (water splitting and photofixation of CO₂), environmental decontamination, and bacteria disinfection will be presented in detail. Last but not least, this comprehensive review will conclude with a summary and some invigorating perspectives on the challenges and future directions at the forefront of this research platform. It is anticipated that this review can stimulate a new research doorway to facilitate the next generation of g-C₃N₄-based photocatalysts with ameliorated performances by harnessing the outstanding structural, electronic, and optical properties for the development of a sustainable future without environmental detriment.